E408- RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION

WHAT IS APA?

APA is not a government agency, a sexually transmitted disease, a sports drink, a hair gel, or a California spiritualist movement.  APA stands for “American Psychological Association.”  Outside t he field of psychology, “APA” is shorthand for the writing style manual published by the APA: The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association.

Meaning of Research

• Research is composed of two syllables, a prefix re and a verb search.

• Re means again, anew, over again.

• Search means to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, to probe.

• The two words form a noun to describe a careful and systematic study in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles.

• Research is an organized and systematic way of finding answers to questions.

Primary and Secondary Materials

Sources are the materials researchers gather to support their work, such as books, articles, original works, analyses, reviews, data, or evidence. Sources may be either primary (first-hand) or secondary (second-hand). It is important to know which is which before citing a source in a paper. Research gains credibility and authority when it is founded on primary sources. Researchers achieve stature by gaining readers’ trust. Citing secondary sources demonstrates a researcher’s knowledge of other scholars’ work. Knowledge in a discipline builds upon precedent, adding new facts, data and original thinking. Disciplines vary when distinguishing between primary and secondary sources. Check with your instructor or a librarian to verify a source as either primary or secondary.

Primary Sources

Primary sources are original documents or objects, such as an artifact or creative work. They are often one-of-a-kind or rare. They may present original thinking, new discoveries or new information collected at the time of an event. Researchers use primary sources to understand the past and to build thesis or cases. Primary material may be the focus of a paper. An author may address a primary source with his or her own criticism, theory, or perspective.

Examples of Primary Sources include:

·        Autobiographies

·        Course materials and syllabi

·        Data sets and statistics

·        Diaries

·        Dissertations and theses (when based on original research)

·        Empirical studies (research based on scientific and experimental results)

·        Government documents (such as "No Child Left Behind")

·        Interviews, surveys and fieldwork

·        documentation

·        Laws, including statutes, regulations, proclamations, executive orders

·        Learning objects

·        Letters, correspondence (such as paper, email, tweets )

·        Logos, symbols and signs

·        Manuscripts

·        Medical charts

·        News reports or footage (sometimes secondary)

·        Official records (such as corporate minutes, county records, certificates)

·        Original works of literature or treatises

·        Original works of art, music, theatre

·        Photographs

·        Proceedings from conferences,

·        meetings and symposia

·        Relics or artifacts

·        Speeches

·        Student records (such as report cards)

·        Technical reports

·        Tests, scales, or measuring

·        instruments

Secondary Sources.

Secondary sources are about an event or primary source. Secondary sources describe, interpret, analyze, evaluate, explain, comment on, or develop theories related to a topic. They are often written after-the-fact, with hindsight. They may merely point to primary materials. Tertiary sources, sometimes viewed as a subset of secondary, are similarly about a subject. Tertiary sources distill primary or secondary materials into publications such as dictionaries, directories, encyclopedias, almanacs, or chronologies.

Examples of Secondary (and Tertiary) Sources include:

·        Almanacs and fact books (tertiary)

·        Bibliographies

·        Biographies

·        Chronologies (tertiary)

·        Commentaries

·        Concordances

·        Data tables and summaries (may also be primary)

·        Dictionaries and encyclopedias (tertiary or secondary)

·        Digests and summaries

·        Directories (tertiary)

·        Handbooks, manuals, and guidebooks (tertiary or secondary)

·        Histories about a topic

·        Indexing and abstracting tools (tertiary)

·        Journal articles (sometimes primary)

·        Library catalogs (tertiary)

·        Monographs (other than fiction, poetry, autobiography)

·        Online databases (tertiary or secondary)

·        Review articles and editorials

·        Textbooks

·        Treatises

·        Works of criticism and interpretation

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);

2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);

3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);

4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).

Quantitative vs. Qualitative:

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behavior (i.e., why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective techniques. Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative research is especially important in the behavioral sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behavior. Through such research we can analyze the various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particular thing. It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, one should seek guidance from experimental psychologists.

Research Methods Vs Methodology

In Short:

Is there any difference between research methods and research methodology?

Research methods are the various procedures, schemes, algorithms, etc. used in research. All the methods used by a researcher during a research study are termed as research methods. They are essentially planned, scientific and value-neutral. They include theoretical procedures, experimental studies, numerical schemes, statistical approaches, etc. Research methods help us collect samples, data and find a solution to a problem. Particularly, scientific research methods call for explanations based on collected facts, measurements and observations and not on reasoning alone. They accept only those explanations which can be verified by experiments.

Research methodology is a systematic way to solve a problem. It is a science of studying how research is to be carried out. Essentially, the procedures by which researchers go about their work of describing, explaining and predicting phenomena are called research methodology. It is also defined as the study of methods by which knowledge is gained. Its aim is to give the work plan of research.

In Broad:

It seems appropriate at this juncture to explain the difference between research methods and research methodology. Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques that are used for conduction of research. Research methods or techniques*, thus, refer to the methods the researchers use in

*At times, a distinction is also made between research techniques and research methods. Research techniques refer to the behavior and instruments we use in performing research operations such as making observations, recording data, techniques of processing data and the like. Research methods refer to the behavior and instruments used in selecting and constructing research technique.

performing research operations. In other words, all those methods which are used by the researcher during the course of studying his research problem are termed as research methods. Since the object of research, particularly the applied research, it to arrive at a solution for a given problem, the available data and the unknown aspects of the problem have to be related to each other to make a solution possible. Keeping this in view, research methods can be put into the following three groups:

1.     In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the collection of data. These methods will be used where the data already available are not sufficient to arrive at the required solution;

2.     The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for establishing relationships between the data and the unknowns;

3.     The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained. Research methods falling in the above stated last two groups are generally taken as the analytical tools of research.

Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research methods/techniques but also the methodology. Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply particular research techniques, but they also need to know which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not, and what would they mean and indicate and why. Researchers also need to understand the assumptions underlying various techniques and they need to know the criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques and procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others will not. All this means that it is necessary for the researcher to design his methodology for his problem as the same may differ from problem to problem. For example, an architect, who designs a building, has to consciously evaluate the basis of his decisions, i.e., he has to evaluate why and on what basis he selects particular size, number and location of doors, windows and ventilators, uses particular materials and not others and the like. Similarly, in research the scientist has to expose the research decisions to evaluation before they are implemented. He has to specify very clearly and precisely what decisions he selects and why he selects them so that they can be evaluated by others also. From what has been stated above, we can say that research methodology has many dimensions and research methods do constitute a part of the research methodology. The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research methods. Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the research methods but also consider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and explain why we are using a particular method or technique and why we are not using others so that research results are capable of being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others. Why a research study has been undertaken, how the research problem has been defined, in what way and why the hypothesis has been formulated, what data have been collected and what particular method has been adopted, why particular technique of analyzing data has been used and a host of similar other questions are usually answered when we talk of research methodology concerning a research problem or study.

Data Collection

In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.

Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis. But in the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways:

(i)                By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of investigator’s own observation, without interviewing the respondents. The information obtained relates to what is currently happening and is not complicated by either the past behavior or future intentions or attitudes of respondents. This method is no doubt an expensive method and the information provided by this method is also very limited. As such this method is not suitable in inquiries where large samples are concerned.

(ii)              Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks answers to a set of pre-conceived questions through personal interviews. This method of collecting data is usually carried out in a structured way where output depends upon the ability of the interviewer to a large extent.

(iii)            Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves contacting the respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used method but it plays an important role in industrial surveys in developed regions, particularly, when the survey has to be accomplished in a very limited time.

(iv)            By mailing of questionnaires: The researcher and the respondents do come in contact with each other if this method of survey is adopted. Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with a request to return after completing the same. It is the most extensively used method in various economic and business surveys. Before applying this method, usually a Pilot Study for testing the questionnaire is conduced which reveals the weaknesses, if any, of the questionnaire? Questionnaire to be used must be prepared very carefully so that it may prove to be effective in collecting the relevant information.

(v)              Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given training. They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These enumerators go to respondents with these schedules. Data are collected by filling up the schedules by enumerators on the basis of replies given by respondents. Much depends upon the capability of enumerators so far as this method is concerned. Some occasional field checks on the work of the enumerators may ensure sincere work.

Sample Design

The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Thus, the plan to select 12 of a city’s 200 drugstores in a certain way constitutes a sample design. Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples. With probability samples each element has a known probability of being included in the sample but the non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability. Probability samples are those based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non-probability samples are those based on convenience sampling, judgement sampling and quota sampling techniques. A brief mention of the important sample designs is as follows:

(i)                Deliberate sampling: Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-probability sampling. This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate selection of particular units of the universe for constituting a sample which represents the universe. When population elements are selected for inclusion in the sample based on the ease of access, it can be called convenience sampling. If a researcher wishes to secure data from, say, gasoline buyers, he may select a fixed number of petrol stations and may conduct interviews at these stations. This would be an example of convenience sample of gasoline buyers. At times such a procedure may give very biased results particularly when the population is not homogeneous. On the other hand, in judgment sampling the researcher’s judgment is used for selecting items which he considers as representative of the population. For example, a judgment sample of college students might be taken to secure reactions to a new method of teaching. Judgment sampling is used quite frequently in qualitative research where the desire happens to be to develop hypotheses rather than to generalize to larger populations.

(ii)              Simple random sampling: This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or probability sampling where each and every item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible samples, in case of finite universe, has the same probability of being selected. For example, if we have to select a sample of 300 items from a universe of 15,000 items, then we can put the names or numbers of all the 15,000 items on slips of paper and conduct a lottery. Using the random number tables is another method of random sampling. To select the sample, each item is assigned a number from 1 to 15,000. Then, 300 five digit random numbers are selected from the table. To do this we select some random starting point and then a systematic pattern is used in proceeding through the table. We might start in the 4th row, second column and proceed down the column to the bottom of the table and then move to the top of the next column to the right. When a number exceeds the limit of the numbers in the frame, in our case over 15,000, it is simply passed over and the next number selected that does fall within the relevant range. Since the numbers were placed in the table in a completely random fashion, the resulting sample is random. This procedure gives each item an equal probability of being selected. In case of infinite population, the selection of each item in a random sample is controlled by the same probability and that successive selections are independent of one another.

(iii)            Systematic sampling: In some instances the most practical way of sampling is to select every 15th name on a list, every 10th house on one side of a street and so on. Sampling of this type is known as systematic sampling. An element of randomness is usually introduced into this kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start. This procedure is useful when sampling frame is available in the form of a list. In such a design the selection process starts by picking some random point in the list and then every nth element is selected until the desired number is secured.

(iv)            Stratified sampling: If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous group, then stratified sampling technique is applied so as to obtain a representative sample. In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of non-overlapping subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum. If the items selected from each stratum is based on simple random sampling the entire procedure, first stratification and then simple random sampling, is known as stratified random sampling.

(v)              Quota sampling: In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from individual strata is often so expensive that interviewers are simply given quota to be filled from different strata, the actual selection of items for sample being left to the interviewer’s judgment. This is called quota sampling. The size of the quota for each stratum is generally proportionate to the size of that stratum in the population. Quota sampling is thus an important form of non-probability sampling. Quota samples generally happen to be judgment samples rather than random samples.

(vi)            Cluster sampling and area sampling: Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and then selecting the groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the sample. Suppose some departmental store wishes to sample its credit card holders. It has issued its cards to 15,000 customers. The sample size is to be kept say 450. For cluster sampling this list of 15,000 card holders could be formed into 100 clusters of 150 card holders each. Three clusters might then be selected for the sample randomly. The sample size must often be larger than the simple random sample to ensure the same level of accuracy because is cluster sampling procedural potential for order bias and other sources of error are usually accentuated. The clustering approach can, however, make the sampling procedure relatively easier and increase the efficiency of field work, especially in the case of personal interviews. Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about when the total geographical area of interest happens to be big one. Under area sampling we first divide the total area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas, generally called geographical clusters, then a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected, and all units in these small areas are included in the sample. Area sampling is especially helpful where we do not have the list of the population concerned. It also makes the field interviewing more efficient since interviewer can do many interviews at each location.

(vii)          Multi-stage sampling: This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling. This technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably large geographical area like an entire country. Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary sampling units such as states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families within towns. If the technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages, the sampling procedure is described as multi-stage random sampling.

(viii)        Sequential sampling: This is somewhat a complex sample design where the ultimate size of the sample is not fixed in advance but is determined according to mathematical decisions on the basis of information yielded as survey progresses. This design is usually adopted under acceptance sampling plan in the context of statistical quality control.

In practice, several of the methods of sampling described above may well be used in the same study in which case it can be called mixed sampling. It may be pointed out here that normally one should resort to random sampling so that bias can be eliminated and sampling error can be estimated. But purposive sampling is considered desirable when the universe happens to be small and a known characteristic of it is to be studied intensively. Also, there are conditions under which sample designs other than random sampling may be considered better for reasons like convenience and low costs. The sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking into consideration the nature of the inquiry and other related factors.

Data Analysis

After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. The unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories. Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding the stage is ready for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form of tables. The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A great deal of data, especially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save time but also make it possible to study large number of variables affecting a problem simultaneously. Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages, coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae. In the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusion(s). For instance, if there are two samples of weekly wages, each sample being drawn from factories in different parts of the same city, giving two different mean values, then our problem may be whether the two mean values are significantly different or the difference is just a matter of chance. Through the use of statistical tests we can establish whether such a difference is a real one or is the result of random fluctuations. If the difference happens to be real, the inference will be that the two samples come from different universes and if the difference is due to chance, the conclusion would be that the two samples belong to the same universe. Similarly, the technique of analysis of variance can help us in analyzing whether three or more varieties of seeds grown on certain fields yield significantly different results or not. In brief, the researcher can analyze the collected data with the help of various statistical measures.

HYPOTHESIS

Researchers do not carry out work without any aim or expectation. Research is not of doing something and presenting what is done. Every research problem is undertaken aiming at certain outcomes. That is, before starting actual work such as performing an experiment or theoretical calculation or numerical analysis, we expect certain outcomes from the study. The expectations form the hypothesis. Hypotheses are scientifically reasonable predictions. They are often stated in terms of if-then sentences in certain logical forms. A hypothesis should provide what we expect to find in the chosen research problem. In other words, the expected or proposed solutions based on available data and tentative explanations constitute the hypothesis. Hypothesizing is done only after survey of relevant literature and learning the present status of the field of research. It can be formulated based on previous research and observation. To formulate a hypothesis the researcher should acquire enough knowledge in the topic of research and a reasonably deep insight about the problem. In formulating a hypothesis construct operational dentitions of variables in the research problem. Hypothesis is due to an intelligent guess or for inspiration which is to be tested in the research work rigorously through appropriate methodology. Testing of hypothesis leads to explanation of the associated phenomenon or event. What are the criteria of a good hypothesis? A hypothesis should have conceptual clarity and a theoretical orientation. Further, it should be testable. It should be stated in a suitable way so that it can be tested by investigation. A hypothesis made initially may become incorrect when the data obtained are analyzed. In this case it has to be revised. It is important to state the hypothesis of a research problem in a research report. We note that if a hypothesis withstands the experiments and provide the required facts to make it acceptable; not only to the researchers performing the experiments but to others doing other experiments then when sufficiently reinforced by continual verification the hypothesis may become a theory.

What is a Research Report?

Research reporting is an oral or a written presentation of important and useful aspects of the research work done. Scientific writing, a thesis or a paper, is intended to present clearly the purpose and outcome of a specific research investigation. It is the last but a major part of the research study. A report helps the researcher get feedback from other researchers and experts working in the same field. It also evaluates the success and originality of the researcher’s work. Without a report, a research study is incomplete and of no use. A report essentially conveys the outcome of a research work to interested persons. Brilliant work and most striking findings are of little value if they are not effectively communicated to the scientific world. As pointed out by Eli Maor, in academic matters the iron rule is publish or perish. Sometimes delaying a publication of a result one would lose his claim.

What is a Research Paper or Article and Ph.D Thesis or Dissertation?

A research paper is a report published in a journal or magazine or conference proceedings, etc. Whereas a Ph.D. dissertation is a report of the entire work done by a researcher to a university or an institution for the award of the degree of doctor of philosophy. A Ph.D. dissertation is a lengthy, original and substantial document. It should contain original contributions. Essentially, the role of a Ph.D. dissertation is to demonstrate the research person’s original thinking and contribution to the topic of research. It should also clearly point out the research competence of the researcher in his research field. M.Phil. dissertation is designed as a practice for Ph.D. thesis. It will help the researcher learn and understand the present status of the topic and make him capable of working at the Ph.D. level. The work done for an M.Phil. dissertation need not be publishable in journals.

Research Proposal Writing

A good research proposal is the key to successful research.  Any research--whether in the area of Public Health examining the impact of passive smoking, or industrial pollution of in the area of social change investigating the impact of new agricultural technology on a rural society--must begin with a clearly focused research proposal.

An effective proposal should be crisp and be composed of segments that can be read independently of one another.  It is not unlikely that many of the readers especially if they sit on the committees that evaluate research proposals for funding decisions will read only specific segments of the proposal.  Each segment must tell its own story in a straightforward fashion.

After Selection of Research Topic we need to follow the following procedures in our proposal writing.

Step 1.  Introduction: Say in the first paragraph what your research project is. Assume that the majority of your readers are impatient, and that those who are not are often too lazy to read the rest of the proposal.  So make sure that they know in the first few sentences what your project is about.  It is a good idea to start a research proposal like this: "In the proposed study we seek to examine …"

Step 2.   Review of the literature: Any research is a social activity.  We all stand, Merton said, on the shoulders of the giants.  Don’t go alone, be a part of the group.  Don't forget that knowledge, at least in the social sciences, is cumulative.  There are people who must have already thought, studied, and written about your pet project. So do read their books, be familiar with their works and in this section, review the existing literature on your proposed topic.

Step 3.   Identification of the knowledge gap: Hopefully you will find that there are gaps in the existing literature which need to be filled.  In this section, you state what we do not know from reading the existing fund of knowledge and need to know.  This is a justification for your taking up of the project.   

Step 4.   Statement of the problem: Now you state clearly and precisely what your specific research problem is.  Don't get confused with the word 'problem'.  It does not have to be a real-life problem.  Research problem actually means research topic.  And the topic may sometimes concern a real-life problem.

Step 5.   Objectives and limitations: State what you hope to accomplish by doing the research and mention the areas you are not going to deal with.  Drawing boundaries is an important part of research.  Stating what you are not going to do is often just as important as stating what you are going to do.

Step 6. Hypotheses (plural of the word 'hypothesis'): State what kind of relationships you expect to find between variables or factors. In thinking of a research proposal, it is always useful to think in terms of a cause-effect relationship between the variables (factors).  In the jargon of research methodology these are called independent variables (causes) and dependent variables (effects) respectively.  For example, you are thinking of conducting a research in the area of Juvenile Delinquency.   You may begin to think in terms of what causes some juveniles to be delinquent.  Here, delinquency is the dependent variable (effect) and the cause of it is the independent variable.  There can also be intervening and incidental variables which we will not discuss here.  You may hypothesize that lack of adequate recreational facilities may cause some kids to be involved in delinquent acts.  You can word this statement as follows:  "There is a relationship between the availability of adequate recreational facilities on the part of the kids in a neighborhood and their involvement in delinquent acts.  Delinquent acts are likely to increase if adequate recreational facilities are unavailable."  Now, we really do not know if this is the case.  ‘Hypothesis’ is your intelligent guess about the possible relationship between two variables.  Remember this is only a guess; you are not putting your prestige in the line.  Don't be hard pressed to prove that your guess is right.  It is more common to disprove the hypothesis (or hypotheses) than prove it on the basis of the research findings.

Step 7a)   Method: State what method you will follow in doing the proposed research. Your method may often be dictated by the nature of your research.  For example, if you are doing research on the whiskey rebellion in Pittsburgh in the late eighteenth century, you cannot use the survey method!  Unfortunately, your likely respondents have all been dead for many years.  So the best--and actually only--method available to you in this instance is the historical method.  Before committing yourself to the historical method, be prepared to spend long hours in the archives and reading microfilms.  Both are tedious and back-breaking tasks (but who said research is fun?!!)

b)   Source of data (plural of datum): Tell us about your data sources.  Tell us whether you are collecting your own data or using an existing data set.  In the latter case, mention who collected the data, when, and how.  What sort of documents, or books, or newspapers etc. are you planning to consult?  Don't feel shy.  There are many who may not be aware of some of the sources that you know of.  In case you are collecting your own data by interviews, tell us who are you going to interview, how many, and how.  For example, you can use a mail questionnaire or you can even interview through the telephone (even by satellite, if resources permit!).  You need to attach a sample questionnaire with your proposal.  If you are going to do fieldwork using ethnographic techniques such as participation-observation, tell us about your subjects, the duration of your fieldwork and other plans related to it.  In writing about your data sources, show some sensitivity to ethical considerations.

Step 8.   Importance and contribution of the study: Make a concluding statement on the importance of your work and tell us in what area and in what way your work is going to contribute to our knowledge and to our understanding of certain issues.  It's a good idea to exercise some modesty in this paragraph.

Step 9. Reference:  Provide works those you have read and used so that it becomes easy and useful to the supervisor and the audience that your work acknowledges other sources apart from yours and authentic in presentation from those.