Mahabharata
By Anonymous
eNotes: Table of Contents
1. Mahabharata:
Introduction
2. Mahabharata: Anonymous
Biography
3. Mahabharata: Summary
4. Mahabharata: Themes
5. Mahabharata: Style
6. Mahabharata: Historical
Context
7. Mahabharata: Critical
Overview
8. Mahabharata: Character
Analysis
**Arjuna**
**Karna**
**Krishna **
**Yudhishthira**
**Other Characters**
9. Mahabharata: Essays and
Criticism
**The Role of Dharma**
**Dharma as the Goal: The Mahabharata**
**Introduction to Mahabharata**
10. Mahabharata: Compare
and Contrast
11. Mahabharata: Topics for
Further Study
12. Mahabharata: Media
Adaptations
13. Mahabharata: What Do I
Read Next?
14. Mahabharata: Bibliography and Further Reading
Mahabharata: Introduction
The Mahabharata is the great national epic poem of India (officially
known as "Bharat"). Comprising one hundred thousand stanzas of verse
divided into eighteen books, or parvas, the poem is the largest single literary
work in existence. Originally composed in the ancient language of Sanskrit
sometime between 400 BC and 400 AD, it is set in a legendary era thought to
correspond to the period of Indian culture and history in approximately the
tenth century BC. Its main subject is a bloody feud between two branches of the
ruling family of the northern Indian kingdom
of Kurujangala India , the Mahabharata
is considered one of the finest works on Hindu culture, and is widely read
and studied. In addition, it continues to provide inspiration to new
generations of Indian writers and artists, and is perceived as the nation's
most valued classical work of literature. The encyclopedic character and
cultural importance of the Mahabharata are characterized in this
statement from the work: "That which is found in these pages may be found
elsewhere, but what is not in these pages exists nowhere."
Mahabharata: Anonymous Biography
Most scholars agree that the Mahabharata was not
written by a single individual. Instead multiple authors compiled it over the
course of several centuries. According to mythic tradition, however, the rishi
(sage) Vyasa—who is also a character in the Mahabharata—wrote the
work. In Sanskrit, the name Vyasa means "collector,"
"compiler," or "arranger." Thus, Vyasa represents the
countless individuals who put together the various tales, stories, histories,
legends, and treatises that are known collectively as the Mahabharata. A
legendary figure occupying a prominent position in ancient Sanskrit literature,
Vyasa is said to have composed the eighteen puranas, or "ancient
tales," and to have written the four Vedas, the sacred texts of the
Hindu religion. Also according to myth, he is supposed to have written more
than 3 million stanzas of the epic poem, the majority of which were for the
entertainment and enlightenment of the gods, while only one hundred thousand of
the stanzas were to be repeated among human beings as the Mahabharata.
The legend of Vyasa's creation of the poem is this: The great seer Vyasa wanted
to write down the story of his people, the Bharata (an ancient Aryan tribe
whose name has become synonymous with India ). While meditating on how he
would give the work to his disciples, the elephant-headed god of writers,
Ganesha, appeared. The deity offered to write down Vyasa's story on the one
condition that the wise man never stops telling his tale. If he did, the god
would disappear, never to return. Vyasa weighed Ganesha's proposal and agreed
to it, providing that he could stop if ever Ganesha failed to understand
something he had said. The agreement was made, and thus, so
the legend goes, the Mahabharata is filled with many digressions and complexities because of Vyasa's
need to confuse and bewilder his scribe.
Mahabharata: Summary
Adi-Parva, First Book: The Origins of the Families
The story opens as Sauti, a storyteller returning from the
snake sacrifice of King Janamejaya, approaches several wise men, or rishis,
in the forest of Naimisha Ganges river. She and King Santanu have a child called
Bhishma. Later Santanu falls in love with Satyavati, a beautiful woman born
from a fish. Long ago Satyavati had given birth to the poet Vyasa, but now she
agrees to marry Santanu on the condition that her future son by Santanu would
become king. Santanu tells his son Bhishma of this wish, and Bhishma forsakes
his right to the throne. The two then marry, and Satyavati bears two sons,
Chitrangada and Vichitravirya. Chitrangada, the elder, becomes king after
Santanu retires to the forest. But the new king is killed in battle before he
can produce an heir and the young Vichitravirya takes his place. Bhishma, in an
attempt to continue the royal line, abducts three princesses from a neighboring
kingdom. Two of them, Ambika and Ambalika, agree to marry Vichitravirya, while
the third, Amba, departs to be with her true love. But the young king dies of
consumption before siring any children, so Bhishma asks his half-brother Vyasa
to father children by Vichitravirya's wives. When Vyasa approaches Ambika she
closes her eyes, and thus her son Dhritarashtra is born blind. When her sister
Ambalika sees Vyasa she turns pale with fright and her son, Pandu (meaning
"pale"), is born with very light skin. Although Dhritarashtra is
older, Bhishma makes Pandu king because his brother cannot see. Pandu marries
Princess Kunti, who chooses him at her svayamvara, the ceremony of
self-choice. Pandu also takes a second wife, Madri. He reigns as king of
Kurujangala, living in the city of Hastinapura
for several years and then retires to the Himalayas
with Kunti and Madri. One day while out hunting, Pandu shoots a deer that curses
him, foretelling that he will die while making love to one of his wives. The
formerly sexually insatiable Pandu avoids sexual contact with his wives, and
encourages them to bear him sons from unions with the gods. His wife Kunti
summons Dharma, the god of justice, who fathers Yudhishthira. Then she gives
birth to Bhima by Vayu, the god of the wind, and Arjuna by Indra, the king of
the gods. Madri also uses Kunti's mantra, evoking the gods called the Aswins,
who give her twin sons, Nakula and Sahadeva. Meanwhile, Dhritarashtra has
become king and marries Gandhari, who choses to live with her eyes blindfolded
when she learns that her husband is blind. As Vyasa had prophesied, Gandhari
gives birth to one hundred sons and one daughter—all of whom come from a single
ball of flesh that lies in her womb for two years. Called the Kauravas, the
eldest son is Duryodhana, the second boy is Duhsasana, while the sole daughter
is called Duhsala. Several years later, Pandu gives in to desire and embraces
Madri. He dies instantly, according to the prophecy, as does Madri, from fear.
Pandu's sons, known as the five Pandavas, return with Pandu's widow Kunti to Hastinapura.
They are welcomed by King Dhritarashtra, and raised with his own sons. All are
instructed in the military arts by the tutors Kripa and Drona, as is Drona's
son Aswatthaman. The Bharata princes excel at warfare, but Drona's star pupil
is Arjuna. Adept with a bow, Arjuna's skills are unparalleled, until one day an
even greater warrior arrives. This is Karna. The son of Kunti and Surya (the
sun god), Karna was born with golden armor attached to his skin. But Kunti,
young and unmarried, set her son adrift on a river to be found and raised by
suitable parents. He was adopted by Adhiratha, a charioteer. None of the
Pandavas realize that Karna is their brother, and the armored warrior bests
them all in martial feats. Kripa, however, questions Karna's presence, noting
that he is not a prince. Duryodhana is impressed with Karna—and more
importantly, he has been looking for a warrior who could defeat Arjuna.
Duryodhana and Karna become friends, but according to traditions of obligation,
Karna is indebted to Duryodhana for his kingship and hence owes the prince a
great favor. Led into battle by Drona, the Pandavas attack the nearby kingdom
ruled by Drupada, and Drona seizes one half of the king's lands. The Pandavas
return to Hastinapura and Yudhishthira becomes heir to the throne of
Kurujangala. Jealous and fearing the loss of his future throne, Duryodhana
hatches a plot to destroy the five and acquire the kingdom for him. While his
cousins and Kunti are visiting the town of Varanavata , they are to stay in a special house
constructed by one of Duryodhana's henchmen which he plans to have burned.
Before the Pandavas leave, however, Vidura warns Yudhishthira of the planned
trap. Bhima plans an escape route by digging a tunnel under the house through
which they escape. Kunti and the five Pandavas are thought to have perished in
the flames. They actually flee into the forest. While traveling in the wilderness, Bhima
happens upon Hidimba, the beautiful sister of a Rakshasa, or forest-demon,
Hidimba-asur. Bhima falls in love with her and kills her brother as the fiend
is about to kill the Pandavas and Kunti. Hidimba bears Bhima a son,
Ghatotkacha, "the pot-headed." The five brothers, disguised as Brahmins
(religious men), and their mother continue to wander through the forest.
Bhima slays another Rakshasa, Vaka, saving the people in the village of Ekachakra Indraprastha .
Yudhisthira's rule at Indraprastha is peaceful for more than a decade. Meanwhile
Arjuna leaves his brother's kingdom for twelve years. He visits the wise and
mighty Krishna in the city of Dwaraka .
There he falls in love with Subhadra, Krishna 's
sister, and embarks on several adventures.
Sabha-Parva, "Assembly Book": The Game of Dice
Back in Hastinapura, Duryodhana is still powerfully jealous of the
five Padavas and their growing power and wealth. He consults his uncle, Sakuni,
asking him how he might defeat the Pandavas. Sakuni points out that Yudhishthira
has a weakness for gambling, and if challenged to play at dice will not
decline. Duryodhana invites the Pandavas to Hastinapura, and offers the
challenge, which Yudhishthira accepts, playing against the cunning Sakuni in
place of Duryodhana. But Sakuni cheats at the game, and soon the Kauravas win Yudhishthira's
wealth and kingdom, and also his four brothers, their wife Draupadi, and
Yudhishthira himself. The Kauravas have Draupadi brought forcibly before them.
She is in traditional monthly seclusion, so it is especially offensive that her
privacy is thus violated. Compounding the insult to her honor, Duhsasana humiliates
her and attempts to strip off her clothing. Bhima, enraged by this treatment of
his wife, vows that he will kill Duhsasana and drink his blood. King
Dhritarashtra rebukes his sons for their behavior and offers to grant Draupadi
any wish to make up for the wrong done to her. She asks that Yudhishthira and
his brothers, whose freedom has been forfeited in the dice game, be set free.
The king does this. As the Pandavas and their wife turn to leave, the Kauravas,
hoping to thwart their future vengeance, suggest a final gambling match. The losers
of this final throw of the dice must spend twelve years in forest exile, and a
thirteenth year living in disguise in a foreign kingdom. The Pandavas agree;
but Sakuni cheats again and they lose.
Vana-Parva, "Forest Book": Exile in the Forest
The five Pandavas—Yudhishthira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula, and
Sahadeva—and their wife Draupadi depart for the Kamyaka forest. While there, under
the advice of Vyasa, Arjuna leaves the others and goes in search of weapons to
aid them when they return and seek to avenge themselves against the Kauravas.
He encounters Shiva, god of destruction, who gives him a weapon called
Pasupata. Later, Arjuna's father, Indra, appears and takes his son up to
heaven. There Arjuna meets a heavenly dancer, or Apsara, named Urvasi.
Because Arjuna resists her amorous advances, she curses him so that he must
spend one year of his life as a eunuch. Back in the forest, Yudhishthira meets
the rishi Vrihadaswa. The seer relates the story of Nala and Damayanti to
comfort the grief-stricken king. Soon Arjuna returns from Indra's heaven. He
recounts his adventures to his brothers and Draupadi. Meanwhile, Duryodhana and
Sakuni plan an expedition to the forest, hoping to taunt their exiled cousins.
While there, the Kauravas engage the army of the powerful Chitraratha, king of
the Gandharvas, who imprisons them. Arjuna, armed with magical weapons, arrives
and frees his cousin. Duryodhana, shamed by this turn of events, seeks to
starve himself in the forest instead of returning, humiliated, to Hastinapura.
Rebuking his hastiness, however, his brother Duhsasana dissuades him. Later,
Jayadratha, king of Sindhu sees Draupadi in the forest and instantly falls in
love with her. He abducts her while the Pandavas are away hunting. When they
return, the brothers track down Draupadi and Jayadratha. Yudhishthira decides
to spare the unscrupulous king's life and lets him go. Soon another rishi,
called Markandeya, appears. He relates the tale of the princess Savitri to the
Pandavas. Elsewhere, Indra endeavors to win Karna's armor from him. Though
warned by his father of this plot, Karna allows Indra, disguised as a Brahmin,
to remove his natural protection. In exchange he asks that the god give him a
powerful dart. Guaranteed to kill any enemy, the weapon may be used only once.
Back in the forest, Nakula happens upon a magical lake. Though forbidden to
drink the water by an unseen voice, he disobeys and falls dead. Sahadeva,
Arjuna, and Bhima follow and do the same; all are killed. Lastly Yudhishthira
walks to the lake. Seeing the dead bodies of his brothers, he hears the same
warning. Then the voice asks him to answer its questions. Yudhishthira does
this satisfactorily, and the voice reveals itself to be his father, Dharma. The
god of justice, finding Yudhishthira truly worthy, then brings his brothers
back to life.
Virata-Parva, "Book of Virata": The Thirteenth Year of
Exile
During their final year of exile the Pandavas travel to the city
of Matsya in the kingdom of King Virata
Udyoga-Parva, "Effort Book": The Preparations for War
Eager for the return to his kingdom, Yudhishthira asks Krishna to travel to Hastinapura and secure Indraprastha
from the Kauravas. Overriding the opinions of Dhritarashtra's other advisors,
Duryodhana refuses to give away half of Kurujangala and war soon appears
inevitable. Arjuna and Duryodhana both travel to Dwaraka to seek Krishna 's aid in the upcoming hostilities. Krishna offers a choice, himself—as an advisor, not a
warrior—or ten thousand of his Yadava troops. Arjuna selects Krishna ,
while Duryodhana is pleased with the soldiers, despite the fact that he was not
allowed to choose first. Both princes depart, and back in Kurujangala further
preparations for battle are made. At a grand assembly, Krishna ,
the avatar or physical manifestation of the mighty god Vishnu, reveals his
divine form. Undaunted, the Kauravas continue to marshal their forces for war.
Bhishma, forced to lead their army as a general, reveals that he will not fight
against Sikhandin, a warrior of the Pandava forces. According to legend,
Sikhandin's soul was reincarnated from the princess Amba, who is fated to be
the cause of Bhishma's destruction.
Bhishma Parva, "Book of Bhishma": The Battle
In order that he might relate the events of the battle to
Dhritarashtra, Vyasa grants Sanjaya the power of heavenly sight, allowing him
to see all things. On the first day, the armies gather on the vast Kurukshetra plain.
Arjuna, viewing the assembled warriors—including his cousins, uncles, and
grandfather—hesitates, unwilling to fight his kin. To dismiss his fears Krishna sings the Bhagavad Gita, or "Song of
the Lord." In it, Krishna assures Arjuna that
all souls are immortal, and that death is only a temporary state between incarnations.
Strengthened by these words, Arjuna prepares to engage his foes. Before the
conflict, however, Yudhishthira removes his armor and puts down his weapons. He
moves toward Bhishma and asks his permission to fight. Yudhishthira does the
same to Drona, Kripa, and Salya. For nine days the Kauravas and Pandavas wage
war. Each day both forces align themselves in different formations and clash;
many die in the carnage. Each night the warriors retire to their camps, while Rahshasas
and ghouls feast on the decaying bodies of the slain. In the evening of the
ninth day of battle, the five Pandavas and Krishna
travel to Bhishma's tent and ask him how he will die. They learn that he will
not fight the warrior who was once a woman, Sikhandin. The following day
Sikhandin, with the help of Arjuna, shoots Bhishma with his arrows. Soon, the general
is pierced by Pandava arrows. Bhishma remains alive, however, and waits for the
appropriate time of his death.
Drona Parva, "Book of Drona": Drona's Command and Death
Drona accepts Duryodhana's invitation to become the new general of
the Kaurava army and vows to take Yudhishthira alive, thereby ending the war.
In order to accomplish this goal, Arjuna must be lured away from his eldest
brother; a task to be undertaken by Susarman and the five brothers of
Trigartas. On the day of battle, Arjuna defeats the warriors from Trigarta and
thwarts Drona's plan. Elsewhere Arjuna's son, Abhimanyu, cut off from the main
Pandava force by King Jayadratha, is slain by Duhsasana. That night Arjuna vows
his revenge on Jayadratha. This he does the following day—despite the
intervention of Karna—and Jayadratha lies dead. The battle continues into the
night as Bhima's demon son, Ghatotkacha, draws his power from the darkness and
fights for the Pandavas. But Karna intercedes, ending Ghatotkacha's destruction
of the Kaurava forces by slaying him with his magical dart. On the twelfth day
of battle, Krishna devises a ploy to eliminate
Drona. Bhima kills an elephant called Aswatthaman—the same name as Drona's
son—and cries, "Aswatthaman is dead." Drona asks the usually honest
Yudhishthira if this is true. The Pandava prince carries on with the lie in
order to win the war. Overcome with despair, Drona ceases to fight.
Dhrishtadyumna, seeing he is undefended, ends Drona's life, but Aswatthaman,
still alive, is hungry for revenge. He uses the weapon of Narayana, which will
kill all of those who do not immediately drop their weapons and turn their
thoughts from war. Before the Pandavas are killed, the wise Krishna
informs them of this defense and the warriors survive, preventing Aswatthaman's
vengeance.
Karna Parva, "Book of Karna": Karna's Command and Death
Following the death of Drona, Karna takes command of the Kaurava
army. During that day of battle, Duhsasana attacks Bhima. Initially wounding
him, Bhima retaliates by hurling his mace at the attacker. The Pandava prince
then tears open Duhsasana's chest and drinks his blood—as he swore he
would—thereby avenging the humiliation of Draupadi. Later, Karna and Arjuna
battle. When Karna's chariot wheel sinks into the earth he calls to Arjuna to
stay his arrows until he might raise it. He claims that to kill him in such an undefended
position would be cowardly. Arjuna refuses to listen and beheads the mighty
warrior.
Salya Parva, "Book of Salya": The Defeat of Salya and
Duryodhana
With Karna gone, Salya takes command of Duryodhana's army. Bhima
first engages the king of the Madras Krishna 's
brother calls Bhima an unfair fighter for attacking below the waist, and leaves
for Dwaraka. Still, Bhima is victorious, though Duryodhana upbraids him for his
treachery. Later the eldest son of Dhritarashtra sends a message, making Aswatthaman
his new general.
Sauptika-Parva, "Sleeping Book": The Destruction of the
Pandava Army at Night
Aswatthaman, with the aid of a powerful weapon from Shiva, enters
the Pandava camp and slays Dhrishtadyumna, Sikhadin, and the rest of the
Pandava force in their sleep. Only the seven Pandavas not at the camp—the five
brothers, Krishna , and Satyaki—survive the
slaughter. When the seven catch up to Aswatthaman, he attempts to use the
Brahmasira weapon, an implement of war so powerful that it is capable of
destroying the entire world. Arjuna counteracts it with is own Brahma weapon,
then withdraws it. But Aswatthaman is unable to stop his attack, and unintentionally
redirects it toward the womb of Abhimanyu's wife, Uttarah, killing her unborn
child. Krishna , however, restores the baby's
life.
Stri-Parva, "Eleventh Book": The Lament of the Wives
The widows of the Kaurava and Pandava warriors, along with
Dhritarashtra and Gandhari, visit the battlefield to mourn and number the dead.
Meanwhile, Yuyutsu and Sanjaya build pyres and perform funeral rites.
Shanti Parva, "Book of Consolation'': Bhishma's Discourse
A
grieving Yudhishthira speaks to Bhishma, who tells him the ways of kings, the
origins of all things, and the duties of humankind.
Anusasana Parva, "Book of Precepts": The End of Bhishma's
Discourse and his Death
Bhishma continues to tell Yudhishthira of the duties of kings, of
the gods, and of the nature of life in this world. He then bids his friends
goodbye and his soul ascends to heaven.
Aswamedha-Parva, "Fourteenth Book": Yudhishthira's Horse
Sacrifice
Yudhisthira sacrifices a horse in order to purify the sins of the
combatants in this war.
Asramavasika-Parva, "Hermitage Book": Dhritarashtra's
Retirement
Dhritarashtra officially grants the kingdom of Kurujangala Ganges River
Mausala-Parva, "Book of the Clubs": The Death of Krishna and the Yadavas
Thirty-six years after the end of the great battle, evil portents
prophesy the destruction of Dwaraka—Krishna 's city—in
a mighty flood. Another curse tells of Krishna ,
incensed by an argument, picking up a handful of grass, which then became a
club, and killing all of his people, the Yadavas. When Arjuna arrives to investigate,
he finds that these stories are true and that Balarama and Krishna
have died. Arjuna's former companion, Krishna ,
lies slain by an arrow that pierced his foot—the only vulnerable portion of his
body—when a hunter mistook him for a deer.
Mahaprasthanika-Parva, "The Book of the Great Journey":
The Five Pandavas Ascend Mount
Meru
Hearing of the Yadava's destruction, Yudhishthira forsakes his
throne and makes Parikshit, Arjuna's grandson, king. Yudhishthira, his four
brothers, Draupadi, and his dog walk north on their way to Mount Meru
Swargarohana-Parva, "Book of the Ascent to Heaven": The
Five Brothers and Draupadi Arrive in Heaven
Yudhishthira finds Duryodhana in heaven. He is there
because he obeyed the dharma of the warrior and died on the battlefield.
Yudhishthira asks to see his brothers and wife and is informed that they are in
hell, serving penance for their sins. Soon cleansed, they join Yudhishthira. At
this point Janamejaya's ceremony of the snake sacrifice ends, thus closing
Vaisampayana's narrative. Soon after, Sauti finishes his retelling of the Mahabharata.
Mahabharata: Themes
Dharma: Responsibility and Sacred Duty
Despite its size and complexity, the Mahabharata explores
one over-arching theme predominantly: the observance of one's sacred duty,
called dharma. All other thematic issues in the work relate to the
question of dharma obeyed or ignored. The characters who satisfy the
dictates of dharma are eventually rewarded, while those who consciously
refuse to obey their dharma are inevitably punished. According to Hindu
law, each individual has a special place in society and must behave in strict
accordance to the requirements of that position, called caste. In the Mahabharata,
all the important characters belong to the Kshatriya or warrior caste. Individuals
such as Yudhishthira, Arjuna, Bhima, and Duryodhana must obey the dharma of
warriors. They must be courageous, honorable, and respectful of their
opponents. They must never take unfair advantage; for example, attacking an
unarmed or unprepared enemy. Duryodhana, for example, fights fairly against
Bhima, who wrongly strikes him "below the belt" in their combat. At
the end of the narrative, we see that Duryodhana, despite his often evil and
unkind actions, gains admittance to heaven because he always adhered to the
code or dharma of the warrior. More than any other figure in the Mahabharata,
Yudhishthira represents the proper observance of dharma. This is
underscored at the end of the narrative, when he will not abandon the faithful
dog who accompanied him on his final journey. It is revealed to the reader that
this dog is the god Dharma in disguise, testing his son's worthiness one last
time. Thus symbolically Yudhishthira is shown refusing to forsake his dharma
and therefore demonstrating that he deserves to enter into heaven at his
death. Likewise, most of his actions throughout the poem are those of a man
committed to engaging in right behavior as a king and a warrior. When he does
fail to live up to these high ideals—as, for example, when he continues gambling
until he has lost his wealth and kingdom as well as his wife and his own and
his brothers' freedom—he suffers greatly and pays a high price. In additional
to depictions of the importance of dharma embodied in specific
characters, the Mahabharata contains passages that teach specific
lessons about social and spiritual responsibility. Bhishma's speeches to Yudhishthira
focus on the dharma of good leadership and effective ruling. Ultimately,
the Mahabharata observes that existence and happiness depend less on
courage and destiny than on an understanding and acceptance of the rules and
responsibilities of dharma.
Virtue and Truth
The concepts of virtue and truth are closely related to
that of dharma. The Mahabharata includes the story of a great,
epoch-spanning and empire-establishing war, and so often stresses the virtues
of bravery, honesty, and nobility that form the basis of Kshatriya dharma,
the code of warriors in ancient India .
The narrative also shows many instances of individuals violating various codes
of conduct. Sakuni, for instance, cheats in order to defeat his guests, thus
violating codes meant to govern rules of hospitality and of fairness. This
event stands as a telltale sign to original hearers and readers of this epic
that Sakuni and his family are destined to be defeated in the coming war. Truth
and truthfulness are also prominent in the Mahabharata. Krishna , an incarnation of the god of truth Vishnu,
reveals many important truths to the moral characters. Most importantly, he
sings the Bhagavad Gita to Arjuna before the great battle begins,
revealing to the reluctant fighter the essential truths about the illusory nature
of death and the cyclical nature of life. By itself the Bhagavad Gita is
a sacred Hindu test; in the plot of the Mahabharata it has both sacred
and secular functions, serving to fill Arjuna with the confidence and conviction
of divine truth so that he may pursue his dharma. His destiny is to
fight for the Pandavas and to defeat the Kauravas.
Order and Disorder, Good and Evil
On a symbolic level, the Mahabharata tells an
ancient story of a mythic, primal conflict between opposing forces of light and
darkness. Pandu, the pale, and his sons the Pandavas, represent order and
goodness in opposition to the blind Dhritarashtra, his son Duryodhana, and the
Kauravas, who represent darkness and disorder. As an allegory, then, the poem
shows the classic conflict between the forces of good and evil. In the end, of
course, the forces of good triumph, aided by the god Vishnu, who comes to earth
as Krishna to ensure the ultimate triumph of
good. But in the process of winning, the Pandavas themselves are nearly
destroyed. They also find themselves using deception and dishonorable tactics
to defeat their opponents. This fact has often been seen as an indication that
assessments of absolute good and absolute evil are difficult to make; further,
that sometimes a rightful end can only be reached through unrighteous means. In
the Mahabharata, the desired and rightful end is for a lasting peace.
Yet to attain this goal, the Pandavas and Kauravas must engage in the Great War.
Many are killed horribly on both sides. The people suffer and their nation is
impoverished as the two groups fight. The symbolic goal, however, is the defeat
of evil and the restoration of order.
Hinduism—The Flesh versus the Spirit
Perhaps the most important transcendent or spiritual theme
of the Mahabharata is primarily embodied in the Bhagavad Gita,
and entails the basic teachings of Hinduism. In particular, this section of the
poem transmits information about reincarnation and the possibility of ascension
into heaven. As Krishna explains in his song to
Arjuna, death is not the end of life. Human souls are immortal and are
reincarnated through a process called samsara, or transmigration.
Further, according to the concept of karma, those who have lived their
lives in proper accordance with their dharma will be rewarded in each
subsequent life. The final step in the life cycle is that of nirvana: both karma
and samsara are transcended. The soul that attains nirvana moves
beyond desire and individual consciousness to a pure, enlightened state, freed
from the cycle of reincarnation. To accept this endless cycle of purification
is to see that physical life and death on earth are only a small part of the
true cycle of human existence.
Mahabharata: Style
Narrative Technique—Frame Stories
The complex structure of the Mahabharata exists in
part due to its shape as a series of stories and narratives nested one within
another. It opens with the first of two frame stories, which act as
introductions, leading the reader toward the heart of the poem, the epic story
of the great battle between the Pandavas and the Kauravas. The reader first
encounters the tale of Sauti, a bard or storyteller, who recounts what he has
heard of the Mahabharata to several listeners in the forest. Sauti
quotes the sage Vaisampayana, who has learned the poem from his master, Vyasa,
the author of the work. Vaisampayana's tale thus comprises the second frame
story. He recites most of the Mahabharata at the snake sacrifice of King
Janamejaya. Within the main plot of the poem several more sages, or rishis,
such as Markandeya and Vrihadaswa, recount legends, folktales, or popular
stories that illustrate a moral or theme somehow relevant to the main plot.
Occasionally Sauti surfaces within the narrative to make an observation, as
does Vaisampayana, but these intrusions are generally brief. Overall, this
structure allows for the many breaks in narrative flow and chronology, repeated
accounts of events from different points of view, and lengthy digressions that
mark this massive poem.
Sanskrit Literature and Versification
The Mahabharata represents one of the finest
examples of classical Sanskrit poetry. Like Latin, classical Sanskrit is no
longer a living, spoken language though a modern form of the language is a
curricular requirement in many schools. The language of the work also differs
somewhat from the Vedic tongue, a precursor of Sanskrit in which several holy
texts of Hinduism, including the sacred Vedas and the Upanishads,
were written. The subject of much scholarly study and several translations, the
Mahabharata, while often referred to as an epic, is more specifically a purana,
or "ancient tale" in verse. Originally written as one extended poem,
the work eventually grew as more scenes, stories, and other material—including
writings on ethics, law, philosophy, history, and religion—was added. The basic
unit of the poem is the epic sloka, two verse lines with alternating
stressed and unstressed syllables. Other meters are also employed throughout,
all of which adhere to the strict and formal rules of poetics that typify
classical Sanskrit verse.
Language and Style
Several stylistic elements of the Mahabharata indicate
that the poem was once repeated verbally as part of an oral tradition rather
than written down. These include: repeated words and phrases, the use of clichés,
and some stereotypical descriptions, such as those found in the many battle
scenes in the poem. Overall, however, the language of the work is said to be
simple and restrained. In many cases the narrative downplays the more grisly
elements of war. Yet much of the Mahabharata's imagery is also vivid and
highly evocative. Metaphors and similes—comparisons designed to describe one
thing by invoking another—are common in the text, and are especially used to
portray the superhuman qualities and feats of the poem's heroes. Exaggeration
is also used in typical mythic fashion to underscore the grandeur and scope of
the events being described. Arjuna, for example, can unleash dozens of arrows
in a second, and during the war these the arrows launched by all the combatants
can block out the sun. Much of the story is delivered in
dialogue—conversation—or individual speeches. Sometimes a character's thoughts
are rendered in soliloquy, as if spoken even though no one else is present.
Additionally, the poet employs the classic epic device of foreshadowing, by
mentioning or alluding to future events before they occur. Thus, Gandhari
observes that the Pandavas will win the war, because dharma is on their side,
long before the battle has ended. Finally, many characters are depicted with
epithets, symbolic names that describe some significant or interesting characteristic,
or have allegorical names. Duryodhana's name, for instance, means "hard to
conquer."
Mahabharata: Historical Context
Scholars locate the historical setting of the Mahabharata
in a vast area of northern India
sometime around 1000 BC. The poem features the classical Indo-Aryan
civilization—a culture that represents a mix of two groups: the indigenous Indus valley peoples and the Aryans. The latter group
invaded the Indus region and subsequently assimilated elements of the Indus society as part of their own.
Archealogical evidence has uncovered a somewhat mysterious
Bronze Age culture that existed along the Indus river in what is today Pakistan , a nation situated to the immediate
west of modern India .
Contemporary with the ancient Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations, the Indus Valley Indus peoples seem to have had a relatively complex
society and advanced material culture. They lived in mud-brick dwellings,
produced art and pottery, lived under a loosely democratic form of government,
and offered women an equitable status in relation to that of men. Other aspects
of their social organization remain a mystery to archaeologists, though they
worshipped and sacrificed to many gods, including Indra and Agni, both of whom
appear in the Mahabharata. Their belief system also seems to have been
an early form of the Vedic religion. Its precepts were later organized and
written down by the Aryans as the Vedas, the early sacred texts of the
Hindu religion.
Aryan Culture
By around 1500 BC the warlike Aryans (a northern tribe
whose name means "noble" in Sanskrit) had begun to invade the Indus valley, subjugating and later assimilating many of
the indigenous peoples they found there. With their skills in iron metallurgy,
the Aryans brought the Indian subcontinent under their rule and created a highly
advanced civilization along the valleys of the Ganges
and Yamuna rivers, the geographical location of male-dominated, society. Their
culture was organized along a strict hierarchy that eventually developed into the
caste system—a social design in which priests and warriors occupied positions
of authority and power. By the 5th century BC, the Aryan civilization in India had
become an advanced feudal aristocracy, made up of several constituent states.
Kingship and court life had grown increasingly important. Meanwhile, stable institutions,
professional occupations, a trade economy, and a rich tradition of Sanskrit
literature had developed.
The Caste System
The rigid system of social hierarchy developed by the
Aryans was based on hereditary class divisions called castes. Justified by
religious and cultural means, the caste system has become a recognizable part
of Hindu culture that survives today, though in a very different form. Within
the Aryan system, individuals were classified into four varnas, or
"classes." At the top of the hierarchy were the Brahmins or priests.
Though lacking political power, the Brahmins had created the system, and
therefore placed themselves in positions of respect above the rest of society.
They performed sacrifices and other religious ceremonies, and relied on the generosity
of the lower castes for their economic survival. They were also teachers,
instructing younger members of the Kshatriya or warrior class in particular, as
Drona and Kripacharya do in the Mahabharata. Brahmins often appear in
the Mahabharata as hermits or ascetics, individuals who have sacrificed
material wealth and human desires in order to attain religious enlightenment.
The Brahmins were typically the source of great awe and respect in classical
Indian civilization. Below the Brahmins in the caste system were the Kshatriyas,
or warriors. These individuals made up the ruling class of Aryan society.
Including kings, princes, and the remainder of the social aristocracy, nearly
all of the significant individuals in the Mahabharata are members of the
Kshatriya caste. Beneath the warriors were the Vaisyas, merchants, farmers and
other non-aristocratic individuals. Still further below the Vaisyas were the
Sudhras. Laborers and servants to the higher classes, the Sudhras also included
slaves. Outside the system were the Untouchables. These individuals were
considered without caste. This group included social exiles, religious
outcasts, and Dravidians (the aboriginal inhabitants of India ). The
caste system required that individuals never marry outside their caste. Likewise,
many occupations were unavailable to members of a particular caste. Sometimes
the restrictions of caste could be overcome, however. Prince Duryodhana, for
example, makes Karna—whom he believes is the son of a charioteer—the King of
Anga. In the context of the story, however, this is intended to demonstrate the
temporal power of the prince rather than the possibility of moving to a higher
caste, which did not in fact exist. Individuals were caste-bound throughout
their lives—although a good person could look forward to being reborn as a
member of a higher caste.
Hinduism
Out of the tradition of the Vedic religion that flourished
in the Indus River Valley Indus River India , parts of Africa and Southeast
Asia , and other parts of the world, worship a large number, or
pantheon, of gods. Among the most popular are Shiva and Vishnu, both of whom
appear in the Mahabharata—Vishnu as an earthly manifestation of Krishna . The sacred texts of Hinduism include the four Vedas
and the Upanishads, a collection of ancient wisdom and ethical
writings. Among the other great Hindu texts are several non-sacred or secular
works. These include the eighteen puranas or "ancient tales,"
the most important of which are the Mahabharata, specifically the section
of Krishna 's speech to Arjuna known as the Bhagavad
Gita, and the Ramayana. Dramatized in these works are the key ideas
of Hinduism. To begin with, the religion teaches a cyclic conception of the
universe. Over vast periods of time the universe is created and destroyed,
endlessly. Likewise, human life flows in cycles. The human soul, according to
Hindu doctrine, is immortal and might experience countless lifetimes on earth.
This process is called samsara, which means reincarnation or
transmigration of the soul. The form that the soul will take in succeeding
lifetimes is ruled by the dictates of karma. Karma, sometimes
characterized as "the fatality of the act" is, simply put, the
workings of a cosmic law of retribution. According to karma, good actions
in this lifetime will be rewarded in the next, and evil deeds will be punished.
Those who are predominately good might be reincarnated into a higher caste;
those who are evil might be born into a lower one, or even as a lower form of
life, such as an animal. Heaven, in this system, still exists but only as a temporary
stage where souls wait before being reborn. Eventually an end to the cycles of
death and rebirth might be achieved, however, if one can attain moksa,
or release from worldly desires, and learn to no longer differentiate between
the individual soul (atman) and the universal soul (Brahman).
Mahabharata: Critical Overview
Although not exclusively a religious work, the Mahabharata
is considered by many to be the fifth of the Vedas—the other four
are sacred texts of Hinduism designed to teach proper moral and ethical
conduct. It has a prominent position in Indian literature and enjoys great
religious and cultural significance for many Hindus. Critical interpretations
of the work, particularly from European and American commentators, have varied.
Philo M. Buck, in The Golden Thread (1931), called it "chiefly a
celebration of war ... its ideal, the princely warrior, and emperor."
Other commentators suggest that the work is not so one-sided. They point out
that the work contains expressions of regret for the violence and destruction
of armed conflict. Further, some critics point out that while the great battle is
the climax of the Mahabharata, it is only a small part of a vast, multi-part
narrative. For its Indian audience, the sacred text the Bhagavad Gita,
sung by Krishna to Arjuna before the war,
holds much greater significance than the details of the battle itself. In fact,
the war is generally interpreted more as a metaphysical struggle between good
and evil than as the actual physical encounter of two armies.
Synthetic versus Analytic
The two main lines of critical thought concerning the Mahabharata
have focused on whether this massive poem is artistically unified and
coherent or riddled with inconsistencies that invalidate any possible coherence.
The first group is known as the synthetic camp. Common among Indian scholars,
the synthetic stance contends that the Mahabharata is thematically
unified and presents a clear statement on the effects of proper adherence to
the rules of personal and sacred duty (dharma), and the negative results
of abusing dharmic responsibilities. Many non-Indian critics, however, approach
the poem analytically, examining its constituent parts without perceiving any
such unity. This is termed the analytic approach. Moriz Winternitz, in A
History of lndian Literature (1926), for example, calls the Mahabharata "not
one poetic production at all, but rather a whole literature." He also
describes the work a "monstrosity," full of repeated and slightly changed
material. Winternitz and other analytic critics argue that because of its
growth over the years and the addition of sometime irrelevant tales, legends,
local myths, and didactic (or lesson-teaching) material, the Mahabharata is
self-contradictory rather than unified.
Formal Criticism
Stylistic criticism of the Mahabharata largely
reflects the division between synthetic and analytic critics. The analytics
have concentrated on what they see as flaws in the poem, including
inconsistencies in the text, its loose structure, and occasional
repetitiveness. According to the synthetics, however, many of these traits can be
explained by the fact that the Mahabharata existed for centuries as part
of an oral tradition. Not written down, but repeated by poets and sages for the
entertainment and spiritual enlightenment of their listeners, the poem
inevitably changed greatly over time. As new scenes and stories were added or
retold, they were sometimes altered slightly by different speakers. In
addition, oral literature commonly relies on stock phrases that appear over and
over again. Synthetics argue that overall the simplicity and purity of the Sanskrit
language shines through in the Mahabharata. They praise the work for its
poetic beauty.
Myth and Symbolism
The Mythological interpretations have occupied a
significant portion of modern criticism of the Mahabharata. Reflections
on good and evil in the work, however, have been superseded by more complex
readings aimed at discovering the meaning of the poem in relation to the
cultural conditions found in India
during the era between the Aryan conquest of the Indian subcontinent and prior
to the advent of Buddhism there. Thus, the simple conflict between the powers
of light and darkness is significant, but only part of the mythological picture
of the poem. Other critics have examined the nature of the Hindu gods as
literary figures and in comparison to western mythological systems, such as
those of the ancient Greeks or medieval Scandinavians. Georges Dumezil, for
instance, has employed a system of comparative mythology to describe
similarities between the destruction of the great battle in the Mahabharata and
the Norse myth of Ragnorak, or the end of the world. Joseph Campbell has
outlined the poem's relation to other mythological systems and evaluated the
symbolic conflict between truth and ignorance in the work. In addition to these
comparative approaches, most scholars agree that the Mahabharata is
primarily a collection and synthesis of hundreds of years of Hindu thought and
spirituality.
Literary Influence
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